Bells Chemicals Coursework

Bells Chemicals is at present facing a major problem that it had never faced since its inception. As I have been given the responsibility to sort it out, I will work to the best of my knowledge and capabilities in arriving at an appropriate decision. The four-member team appointed to decide which of the two machines (Chemex and AFU) to purchase for its oldest product – Preserve, has not been successful in doing so.All the four members have their own viewpoints and the situation has become very confusing. The machines in the Preserve unit have not been replaced ever.They were performing well all these ten years, but now there is breakdown of one of the machines. There are two choices for the company i. e. buying the Chemex machine (the one that was being used all these years) again or to go for the new AFU unit. Arriving at a correct decision is the problem. Had the company made an autocratic decision there would have been no need to consult its key professionals. But this appr oach would have been termed unfriendly. The friendly approach has some of the disadvantages like the current dilemma.However, keeping aside other things, coming up with a perfect solution is the need of the hour now. I think the company should go for the Chemex machine. This decision of mine can be characterised as the rational way of decision-making. The Normative Decision Making model i. e. defining a problem and rigorously working around it has helped me in arriving at this decision. I have optimized as much as possible to come to a decision beneficial to the organisation. The rational approach of problem solving is the path I have taken. Main body of the report Mr. Steve Bell is not much interested in getting funds from outside.Especially when the company had recently financed most of its capital investments from its own retained profits, for products and capital investments for other products of the company. Capital required to install a new Chemex machine is much lower than th e AFU unit. Not only this, by installing the Chemex machine the company will also be saved with the hassle and stress of taking its first short term loan. The funding of regular operations of the company all round the year will get affected as the company has exhausted accumulated profits in developments and expansion of other products.Hence this financial year, internal funding is a major issue too. Operating cost of AFU unit is extremely expensive when compared to the operating cost of the Chemex. machine. At the present market stage it is impossible for the company to cover additional cost of ? 18000 as operating cost against advantages, which are not very well defined. If we go through the viewpoints of the marketing manager we can derive the following information about our present and expected market. †¢ Company’s production need for current market: 90000 Kg†¢ Company’s production need for expected market: 100000 Kg †¢ Annual market need for current market: 200000 Kg †¢ Annual market need for expected market: 250000 Kg When compared to the production and selling cost estimate of ? 320 per Kg for AFU unit to production and selling cost of ? 350 for Chemex machine, the AFU unit brings forward a brighter picture. Also with the AFU unit production and selling cost can be reduced by ? 2700000 a year at current production rate but we cannot neglect the high acquisition and operating cost attached to the AFU unit either.Retaining present market share should be the current goal of the company keeping in mind the emergence of new competitors in the market. The chief chemist has been trying to modify the product; Preserve so that it can be used in wider ranges of food products, but has not been successful yet. The increase in market demand at this market stage can also not be predicted. Therefore demand for increase in production is out of the way. Hence for the next couple of years it is advisable to install a new Chemex machine i nstead of the AFU unit to satisfactorily cover the market growth.Why to waste money on an expensive machine when a cheaper one can meet the requirements successfully? Quality is one of the major issues for the marketing manager with new competitors in the horizon. The marketing manager will naturally aim to increase, or at least retain his market share for the best benefits. If the AFU unit is installed then, there will be a major quality inconsistency. Chances are that the other Chemex machine that is giving good performance and the new AFU unit will produce different qualities of the same product. This is quiet normal because two different machines can give different end results.The integrity of the company will become questionable then. Customers will find two different items in two similarly packaged products. They might react negatively in this situation and chances are they might even turn to the products of our competitors. This is a big price to pay if AFU is installed. Inst alling AFU unit has one advantage and that is – it does not require expenditure in quality control as it has an automatic quality control system. On the other hand the recruited technicians of the company do the quality control of the Chemex machines.They are the regularly paid staff. With the installation of the AFU unit they will have to be paid the same money for half of the their actual work. Their salary cannot be cut down as chances of revolt in the company can erupt because they will never allow a cut in their salaries for no fault of theirs. Hence from this angle too it is a more intelligent step to go for the Chemex machine instead of the AFU unit. Keeping the high cost of the AFU unit, its maintenance will probably be good but we cannot be sure without testing it.Chemex machines require regular maintenance but this is not a problem for the company. Since Chemex is a local company, any breakdown is immediately rectified. After working with the Chemex machines for suc h a long period of time, the technicians have also become experts in handling its minor problems to a great extent. But the breakdown of the AFU unit will become a major headache for the company for sometime. Each time anything will go wrong, the company will have to get totally dependent on its manufactures who are not local like that of the Chemex machines.A lot of time will get wasted in all this. Keeping this factor in mind, again the Chemex machine scores over the AFU unit. Another major concern is the after sales service. After Sales Service of Chemex has been tested and they have always satisfied the company so the future is secure with this supplier. This cannot be said in the AFU’s case at the moment. I have applied Creative Decision Making model, Optimizing model, Kralijic’c Purchasing model and of course the Normative Decision Making model while arriving at the decision regarding the purchase of the correct machine.Through Creative Decision Making model I re cognized the problem after going through the case study. By going through the viewpoints of the four key members of the SMG team, I coherently arranged the information regarding the two machines. I analyzed the whole problem from different angles with the help of the information I had gathered and arranged. I came out with multiple solutions of the same problem. Then I went through all the alternatives one by one and chose the most correct option. Through the Optimizing model I was able to optimise the alternatives of the problem situation.Since this model is similar to the Creative Decision Making Model and the rational approach that I took, things became easier to sort out. According to Have et. al. (2003, p. 115) â€Å"The Kralijic’s (1983) purchasing model and the variations developed over the last decades help management select the most appropriate purchasing strategies for different types of products, thereby optimizing the trade-off between cost and risk. Costs includ e both the direct and indirect cost of purchasing, for example, management time, and trouble shooting and drawing up contracts. Two basic dimensions are included in Kraljic’s matrix:†¢ Impact on financial result †¢ Supply risk (or uncertainty)† I went through this approach too, to arrive at a strong and appropriate decision. Since requirement of this report was to base it on the Normative Decision Making model I followed the following steps while approaching the decision: †¢ Defining of the exact problem †¢ Setting of the objectives †¢ Identifying the alternatives †¢ Evaluating appropriately †¢ Making choice of the best alternative †¢ Sensitivity Analysis †¢ Arriving at the best decision Recommendation I recommend the company to go ahead and purchase the Chemex machine.By doing so the company would not only be paying attention to the profitability of the company, financial viability of the decision but also the satisfaction l evel of its entire staff. The customer will also remain loyal to the company because they will not find any inconsistency in the products they have got used to since the past ten years. The members of the SMG team who were pro AFU unit will also agree with me if they go through this report as at this stage when we have limited resources and growing number of competitors we should stick to the theory that ‘the old is gold’.References Drennan, D. , and Pennington, S. , 1999. 12 Ladders To World Class Performance: how YOUR organization can compete with the best in the world. UK: Kogan Page Limited. Fitzroy, P. , and Hulbert, J. , 2005. Strategic Management: Creating Value In Turbulent Times. Great Britain: John Wiley & Sons, INC. Have, S. T. , et. al. , 2003. Key Management Models: the management tools and practices that will improve your business. Great Britain: Pearson Education Limited. Hegde, Y. S. , and Krishna, R. , 1993. The A to Z of Management Skills. New Delhi: U BSPD.

Developmental Stage Theories Essay

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of changes that occur in human beings over the course of their life span. Originally concerned with infantsand children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire life span. This field examines change across a broad range of topics including motor skills and other psycho-physiological processes; cognitive development involving areas such as problem solving, moral understanding, and conceptual understanding; language acquisition; social, personality, and emotional development; and self-concept and identity formation. Developmental psychology includes issues such as the extent to which development occurs through the gradual accumulation of knowledge versus stage-like development, or the extent to which children are born with innate mental structures, versus learning through experience. Many researchers are interested in the interaction between personal characteristics, the individual’s behavior, and environmental factors including social context, and their impact on development; others take a more narrowly-focused approach. Developmental psychology informs several applied fields, including: educational psychology, child psychopathology, and forensic developmental psychology. Developmental psychology complements several other basic research fields in psychology including social psychology, cognitive psychology, ecological psychology, and comparative psychology. Theories Attachment theory Attachment theory, theoretical frame work originally developed by John Bowlby, focuses on open, intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships. Attachment is described as a biological system or powerful survival impulse that evolved to ensure the survival of the infant. A child who is threatened or stressed will move toward caregivers who create a sense of physical, emotional and psychological safety for the individual. Attachment feeds on body contact and familiarity. Later Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation protocol and the concept of the secure base. There are three types of attachment styles: secure, anxious-avoidant, and anxious-resistant. Secure attachment is a healthy attachment between the infant and the caregiver. It is characterized by trust. Anxious-avoidant is an insecure attachment between an infant and a caregiver. This is characterized by the infant’s indifference toward the caregiver. Anxious-resistant is an insecure attachment between the infant and the caregiver characterized by distress from the infant when separated and anger when reunited. [1] A child can be hindered in its natural tendency to form attachments. Some babies are raised without the stimulation and attention of a regular caregiver, or locked away under conditions of abuse or extreme neglect. The possible short-term effects of this deprivation are anger, despair, detachment, and temporary delay in intellectual development. Long-term effects include increased aggression, clinging behavior, detachment, psychosomatic disorders, and an increased risk of depression as an adult. [2][3] Constructivism Constructivism is a paradigm in psychology that characterizes learning as a process of actively constructing knowledge. Individuals create meaning for themselves or make sense of new information by selecting, organizing, and integrating information with other knowledge, often in the content of social interactions. There are two ways in which constructivism can occur: individual and social. Individual constructivism is when a person constructs knowledge through cognitive processes of their own experiences rather than by memorizing facts provided by others. Social constructivism is when individuals construct knowledge through an interaction between the knowledge they bring to a situation and social or cultural exchanges within that content. [4] Ecological systems theory The Ecological systems theory, originally formulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the systems. The four systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Each system contains roles, norms and rules that can powerfully shape development. The microsystem is the immediate environment surrounding and influencing the individual (example: school or the home setting). The mesosystem is the combination of two microsystems and how they influence each other (example: sibling relationships at home vs. peer relationships at school). The exosystem is the interaction among two or more settings that are indirectly linked (example: a father’s job requiring more overtime ends up influencing his aughter’s performance in school because he can no longer help with her homework). The macrosystem is broader taking into account social economic status, culture, beliefs, customs and morals (example: a child from a wealthier family sees a peer from a less wealthy family as inferior for that reason). Lastly, the chronosystem refers to the chronological nature of life events and how they interact and change the individual and their circumstances through transition (example: a mother losing her own mother to illness and no longer having that support in her life). Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner’s major statement of this theory, The Ecology of Human Development[5] has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of this conceptualization of development, these environments—from the family to economic and political structures—have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through adulthood. [6] Psychosexual development Sigmund Freud believed that we all had a conscious, preconscious, and unconscious level. In the conscious we are aware of our mental process. The preconscious involves information that though we are not currently thinking about can be brought into consciousness. Lastly, the unconscious includes those mental processes which we are unaware of. He believed that the conscious and unconscious had tension because the conscious would try and hold back what the unconscious was trying to express. To explain this he developed three structures of personality; the id, ego, and superego. The id, being the most primitive of the three functioned according to the pleasure principle. The pleasure principle states that the id’s motivation is to seek pleasure and avoid pain. Based on this he proposed five universal stages of development. The first is the oral stage which occurs from birth to 12 months of age, second is the anal stage which occurs from one to three years of age, third is the phallic stage which occurs from three to five years of age (most of a person’s personality is formed by this age), the fourth is called latency which occurs from age five until puberty, and lastly stage five is the genital stage which takes place from puberty until adulthood. 7] Stages of moral development Theories of morality that stem from Jean Piaget’s cognitive-developmental viewpoint emphasize shifts in the type of reasoning that individuals use in making moral decisions. Changes in the content of the decision they reach or the actions they take as a result does not occur. [dubious – discuss] Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on this issue specifically during adolescence. He suggested three levels of moral reasoning; preconventional moral reasoning, conventional moral reasoning, and postconventional moral reasoning. Preconventional moral reasoning is typical of children and is characterized by reasoning that is based on rewards and punishments associated with different courses of action. Conventional moral reason occurs during late childhood and early adolescence and is characterized by reasoning that is based on the rules and conventions of society. Lastly, postconventional moral reasoning is the stage during which society’s rules and conventions are seen as relative and subjective rather than as authoritative. [1] Stages of psychosocial development Erik Erikson became a child psychoanalyst like his mentor Anna Freud, Sigmond Freud’s daughter. He went on to reinterpret Freud’s psychosexual stages by incorporating the social aspects of it. He came up with eight stages, each of which has two crisis (a positive and a negative). Stage one is trust versus mistrust, which occurs during infancy. Stage two is autonomy versus shame and doubt which occurs during early childhood. Stage three is initiative versus guilt which occurs during play age. Stage four is industry versus inferiority which occurs during school age. Stage five is identity versus identity diffusion which occurs during adolescence. Stage six is intimacy versus isolation which occurs during young adulthood. Stage seven is generativity versus self-absorption which occurs during adulthood. Lastly, stage eight is integrity versus despair which occurs during old age. In each of these stages either one or the other crisis is developed. The ideal thing would be to have the positive crisis more developed than the negative crisis. [7] Theories of cognitive development Jean Piaget was a Swiss theorist who posited that children learn by actively constructing knowledge through hands-on experience. [8] He suggested that the adult’s role in helping the child learn was to provide appropriate materials or the child to interact and construct. He would use Socratic questioning to get the children to reflect on what they were doing. He would try to get them to see contradictions in their explanations. He also developed stages of development. His approach can be seen in how the curriculum is sequenced in schools, and in the pedagogy of preschool centers across the United States. Piaget believed that intellectual development took place through a series of stages which caused him to come up with his Theory on Cognitive Development. Each stage consisted of steps which the child had to master before moving on to the next step. He believe that these stages where not separate from one another but rather each stage built on the previous one, hence learning was continuous. His theory consisted of four stages; sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Though he did not believe these stages occurred at any given age, many studies have determine when these cognitive abilities should take place. [4] Zone of proximal development Lev Vygotsky was a Russian theorist from the Soviet era, who posited that children learn through hands-on experience and social interactions with members of his/her culture. 9] Unlike Piaget, he claimed that timely and sensitive intervention by adults when a child is on the edge of learning a new task (called the â€Å"zone of proximal development†) could help children learn new tasks. Martin Hill stated that â€Å"The world of reality does not apply to the mind of a child. † This technique is called â€Å"scaffolding,† because it builds upon knowledge children already have with new knowledge that adults can help the child learn. [10] Vygotsky was strongly focused on the role of culture in determining the child’s pattern of development, arguing that development moves from the social level to the individual level. 10] In other words, Vygotsky claimed that psychology should focus on the progress of human consciousness through the relationship of an individual and their environment. [11]He felt that if scholars continued to disregard this connection, then this disregard would inhibit the full comprehension of the human consciousness Nature/nurture A significant issue in developmental psychology is the relationship between innateness and environmental influence in regard to any particular aspect of development. This is often referred to as â€Å"nature versus nurture† or nativism versus empiricism. A nativist account of development would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, they are specified by the organism’s genes. An empiricist perspective would argue that those processes are acquired in interaction with the environment. Today developmental psychologists rarely take such polarised positions with regard to most aspects of development; rather they investigate, among many other things, the relationship between innate and environmental influences. One of the ways in which this relationship has been explored in recent years is through the emerging field of evolutionary developmental psychology. One area where this innateness debate has been prominently portrayed is in research on language acquisition. A major question in this area is whether or not certain properties of human language are specified genetically or can be acquired through learning. The empiricist position on the issue of language acquisition suggests that the language input provides the necessary information required for learning the structure of language and that infants acquire language through a process of statistical learning. From this perspective, language can be acquired via general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as perceptual learning. The nativist position argues that the input from language is too impoverished for infants and children to acquire the structure of language. Linguist Noam Chomsky asserts that, evidenced by the lack of sufficient information in the language input, there is a universal grammar that applies to all human languages and is pre-specified. This has led to the idea that there is a special cognitivemodule suited for learning language, often called the language acquisition device. Chomsky’s critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is regarded by many as a key turning point in the decline in the prominence of the theory of behaviorism generally. [12] But Skinner’s conception of â€Å"Verbal Behavior† has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications. [12] Mechanisms of development Developmental psychology is concerned not only with describing the characteristics of psychological change over time, but also seeks to explain the principles and internal workings underlying these changes. Psychologists have attempted to better understand these factors by using models. Developmental models are sometimes computational, but they do not need to be. A model must simply account for the means by which a process takes place. This is sometimes done in reference to changes in the brain that may correspond to changes in behavior over the course of the development. Computational accounts of development often use either symbolic, connectionist (neural network), or dynamical systems models to explain the mechanisms of development. Research areas Cognitive development Cognitive development is primarily concerned with the ways in which infants and children acquire, develop, and use internal mental capabilities such as problem solving, memory, and language. Major topics in cognitive development are the study of language acquisition and the development of perceptual and motor skills. Piaget was one of the influential early psychologists to study the development of cognitive abilities. His theory suggests that development proceeds through a set of stages from infancy to adulthood and that there is an end point or goal. Other accounts, such as that of Lev Vygotsky, have suggested that development does not progress through stages, but rather that the developmental process that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex for such structure and finality. Rather, from this viewpoint, developmental processes proceed more continuously, thus development should be analyzed, instead of treated as a product to be obtained. K. Warner Schaie has expanded the study of cognitive development into adulthood. Rather than being stable from adolescence, Schaie sees adults as progressing in the application of their cognitive abilities. 13] Modern cognitive development has integrated the considerations of cognitive psychology and the psychology of individual differences into the interpretation and modeling of development. [14]Specifically, the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development showed that the successive levels or stages of cognitive development are associated with increasing processing efficiency andworking memory capacity. In addition, children in higher-levels of cognitive development have been observed to have greater mathematical fluency in basic addition and subtraction problems. 15] These increases explain differences between stages, progression to higher stages, and individual differences of children who are the same-age and of the same grade-level. However, other theories have moved away from Piagetian stage theories, and are influenced by accounts of domain-specific information processing, which posit that development is guided by innate evolutionarily-specified and content-specific information processing mechanisms. Social and emotional development Developmental psychologists who are interested in social development examine how individuals develop social and emotional competencies. For example, they study how children form friendships, how they understand and deal with emotions, and how identity develops. Research in this area may involve study of the relationship between cognition or cognitive development and social behavior. Erik Erikson believed we undergo several stages to achieve social and emotional development. These stages were called the Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development. The stages were trust vs. mistrust, attachment, parenting style, ego identity, role diffusion, generativity versus stagnation, midlife crisis, and ego integrity versus despair. Emotional regulation or ER refers to an individual’s ability to modulate emotional responses across a variety of contexts. In young children, this modulation is in part controlled externally, by parents and other authority figures. As children develop, they take on more and more responsibility for their internal state. Studies have shown that the development of ER is affected by the emotional regulation children observe in parents and caretakers, the emotional climate in the home, and the reaction of parents and caretakers to the child’s emotions. [16] Physical development Physical development concerns the physical maturation of an individual’s body until it reaches the adult stature. Although physical growth is a highly regular process, all children differ tremendously in the timing of their growth spurts. [17] Studies are being done to analyze how the differences in these timings affect and are related to other variables of developmental psychology such as information processing speed. Traditional measures of physical maturity using x-rays are less in practice nowadays, compared to simple measurements of body parts such as height, weight, head circumference, and arm span. 17] A few other studies and practices with physical developmental psychology are the phonological abilities of mature 5- to 11-year-olds, and the controversial hypotheses of left-handers being maturationally delayed compared to right-handers. A study by Eaton, Chipperfield, Ritchot, and Kostiuk in 1996 found in three different samples that there was no difference between right- and left-handers. [17] Memory development Researchers interested in memory development look at the way our memory develops from childhood and onward. According to Fuzzy-trace theory, we have two separate memory processes: verbatim and gist. These two traces begin to develop at different times as well as at a different pace. Children as young as 4 years-old have verbatim memory, memory for surface information, which increases up to early adulthood, at which point it begins to decline. On the other hand, our capacity for gist memory, memory for semantic information, increases up to early adulthood, at which point it consistent through old age. Furthermore, our reliance on gist memory traces in reasoning increases as we age.

British Control of the Caribbean and Its Allusion

British Control of the Caribbean and Its Allusion Essay in Caribbean LiteratureThe British have influenced the perspective of the Caribbean people inmany ways. The peoples self awareness, religion, language, and culture hascoped with the influx of British ideals and in coping, the people have changedto appease the islands highly influential British population. Three exceptshighly influenced by the British ideals are Crick Crack Monkey by Merle Hodge,My Aunt Gold Teeth by V. S. Naipaul, and If I could Write This in Fire, IWould Write This in Fire by Michelle Cliff. All three excepts show the amongthe people of the islands, whether native or foreign. In examining the threepassages, each author presents a unique perspective. Hodges story ispresented through the eyes of a black , lower class girl of Trinidad in the1950s. Naipaul uses an unidentified East Indian boy to tell his story. A youngwhite girl becomes the narrator of cliffs excerpt. By using Cliffsperspective to examine the perspective of the other two passages. A uniqueinterpretation of the British influence on the Caribbean people develops. Friction among people of different color is clearly displayed within thewritings; However, looking at the story of Crick Crack Monkey through the eyesof a young white girl, rather than a young black girl, the reader might see theinjustice and the ethnic discrimination that a black person must endure. Shewould not be accustomed to being called a little black nincompoop (Hodge 457),and she would most likely not have to suffer a physical beating with a ruler(Hodge 456). In Lady Aunt Gold Teeth, the issue of color is evident throughthe aunts religious affiliation. Changing the color of the narrator in My AuntGold Teeth might make a difference in the way the person perceives their aunt. For example, the narrator says, I was rather ashamed at the exhibition (Na463), when his aunt appears to have got the spirit (CS 462). The Indian boyis probably more ashamed of the aunts reference to Hail Mary than herphysical exhibition. From the perspective of a white Anglican child at thattime, the behavior of the aunt would be acceptable and understandable, but forthe Indian boy, brought up on Hinduism, such actions would seem foreign andconfusing. Racism is evident in the writings by Caribbean authors, and theirintent to expose the British as the perpetrators of the racism is also apparentwhen looking at it through a white girls perspective. Religious confusion is another result of the British occupation in theCaribbean. Both Hodge and Naipaul use their writing to expose the problemsCaribbean people experience with religion. The influence of the church is madeapparent in the writings by all three authors.A striking example can befound on page 455 in Hodges story Crick Crack Monkey. The narrator of thestory tells how the students made sound at the beginning and at end of eachclass period. The sound were the classic English Our Father, the childrendid not understand the words. The children just memorized the sounds and notthe actual meaning. Hodge writes the sound Mrs. Hind attempt to redeem thechildren; however, this is in the perspective of a adult looking back at herchildhood, at the time the Our Father was just sound.Another example,every Sunday afternoon Tantie dressed Toddan and me and sent us to thePentecost Sunday-school in preference to that of the Anglican church (Hodge455); however, in school under Mrs. Hinds di rection we would recite Childrenof the Empire Ye Are Brothers All (Hodge 454). Hodge wrote of both religiousexperiences to show the confusion that the children were undergoing, In theother passage by Naipaul, a similar confusion exists. Aunt Gold Teeth isconfused by the barrage of propaganda by the various religious groups, andevery day her religious schizophrenia grows (Naipaul 459). In trading thenarrators perspectives, one can assume the young white girl would reactdifferently to the situation than the Indian boy. Assuming the white girlbelieves in Christianity, she would probably be happy, rather than confused,about the aunts conversion in faith. The authors clearly show the peoplesconfusion with religion, and in the process, they show the problem lies in thepeoples lack of self-awareness. READ: Mercutio's 'Queen Mab' Speech EssayIn My Aunt Gold Teeth, Aunt Gold Teeth saw religion as a form of power(Naipaul 458). She was very powerful in her Hindu religion. Aunt Gold Teethsought other religions to gain even more power. Naipaul writes

Health Care Fair Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Health Care Fair - Essay Example People are either self-motivated or needs external motivation in every job / career. Therefore, it is important to ask individuals for what is going to be their source of motivation (Carpenito-Moyet, 2006). What are the reasons for choosing this career, and are these reasons extrinsic or extrinsic? It  will help clear many things regarding the personality and nature of that individual. The field of healthcare is undergoing some difficulties and challenges. In this regard what role can you play, and how can you contribute towards the betterment of the quality of the services in the healthcare industry? In any profession, a person might come across various issues / incidents / scenarios in which he or she has to act in a vigilant manner (Nursing Careers, 2014). For this reason every person who thinks of adopting nursing as a career should be prepared so that they can efficiently respond to them. Furthermore every person has his / her perspective and adopts some specific approach towards life and how he deals his everyday routine. It is obvious that nurses have a key function of taking care of the patients however it is important to know in what they are looking after them and what strategies they are adopting (Carpenito-Moyet, 2006). Furthermore it is also important to know their approach as sometimes they might also panic and that can endanger and risk the lives of their patients. It is understood that nurses are meant to be caring and helping. These individuals are self-driven towards humanity and public care. It is important to know that there is no forceful element behind their decision and that they are happy with their decision. It should be noted that sometimes most of the individuals are not happy with their careers and are simply doing for money or because of unemployment. This reason contributed towards the increase in patient care and its overall quality (Carpenito-Moyet, 2006). In order to figure out whether the individuals are

Psychology of Crime Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Psychology of Crime Case Study - Essay Example The Social learning theory was first described by Cornell Montgomery using â€Å"four main stages of imitation† (i.e. close contact, imitation of superiors, understanding of concepts, role model behavior) in the 19th century. This was then expanded further by different sociologists such as Julian Rotter and Albert Bandura and defined the social learning theory and its aspects. Definition for the Social learning theory: â€Å"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action† (Bandura, 1977). According to the above definition most of the time behavior of a person is determined by the society that he or she is living. People rarely come up with their own behavior by trial and error method and even if they do so it is a time consuming and exhausting activity. Instead they observe the society members and note their successes and failures and considered behaviors which had provided satisfactory outcome for the relevant individual. They acquire new behaviors based on the successful behaviors of the society members. The behavior can be legal or illegal, harmless or harmful or accepted or unaccepted by the society, however shown to have some benefits to the person who engage in acts related to behaviour. Back ground: Bert is a 28 year-old male who has been found guilty and sentenced to 4 years imprisonment for a break-in at a motor factory. He had a troubled childhood and family history of crimes and had been engaging in criminal acts such as stealing from age of 14. He had been caught and punished for

Foreign Exchange Dealing Room Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 10000 words

Foreign Exchange Dealing Room - Essay Example According to the world- wide central banking organization which is the Bank for International Settlements, the amount of daily trading done in the forex market is more than three trillion US Dollars. Thus the trading amount is so much that it is much larger than all of the US stock markets taken together. Here, trading from the whole world is done with or without the involvement of hard cash. The trading begins in Sydney everyday, and moves first to Tokyo followed by London and then New York as the business day start in every financial sector. The exchange rates are shown around the world continuously on the computer. The trading takes place when any trader quotes a price for any currency on his machine, and then anyone in the word willing to trade at that particular price can reply to that message and trade. Thus the buyer and sellers can be from any country and virtually trade with other without being present at any particular. The trading takes place between three continents which makes it possible to react or change any decision by any trader regarding his trading activity any event or activity. The value of a particular currency relative to other currencies is influenced by many factors but the main factor affecting it is pure supply and demand of the market. If the demand rises or supply falls, it results in price rise or price fall respectively. 1. DEALING ROOM-ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE: Its organization consists of two tiers namely the retail tier and the wholesale tier. In the retail tier, trading in forex is done by the small agents whereas in the wholesale tier, the dealings between dispersed and diverse banks and big financial institutions , multinational corporations take place. In the forex market, the traders and the individuals have different access levels unlike the stock market, where every client can access the same price of stocks like the other participants or individuals. Whereas in the forex market, on the top level, there is the biggest investment banking firms like Citi and Deutsche Bank. At this level, where the difference between

Socio-Economic Forces behind the Korean obsession with Plastic Surgery Essay - 35

Socio-Economic Forces behind the Korean obsession with Plastic Surgery - Essay Example From this study it is clear that traditionally, the Korean female ideal was one of submission and subjectlessness. Confucian men were encouraged to engage their minds and expand their territories while women were confined to domestic roles. Therefore, any alterations of the physical body would be done for the benefit of the male. However, times have changed; women in South Korea are now equal participants in the economy. They are well educated and career-driven. Therefore, a number of them now reject these traditional definitions of womanhood. As the study outlines Korean women today are highly empowered and now regard personal gratification as a priority in their lives. They want to feel better in their skin and will go for surgical procedures in order to satisfy themselves. Fairclough explains that most South East Asian women are accused of having sleepy or dull eyes. They thus seek to widen their eyes in order to have a youthful look. These individuals simply believe that they will have more fun if their eyes pop. Some critics claim that these surgeries perpetuate negative body self examination. However, most of these women go for body alterations voluntarily. Furthermore, a number of them already had negative views of themselves; therefore, surgeries are a solution that enhances their self image. One of the subjects in the above article affirmed that eye surgery allowed her to enjoy eye makeup more. In the past, this was not possible because of excess fat on the eyelids. Therefore, the subject explained that the surgical decision was not done to please anyone. Instead, it facilitated her own satisfaction with her body.

Satire in Catch 22 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Satire in Catch 22 - Essay Example Being able to view war from both within and outside the bureaucrats’ decision-making zone, Heller’s readers can assess the causes of war, not on the traditional right-or-wrong judging standard, rather on the basis of the underlying bureaucratic motivation that has remained unnoticed by the critics in the post Second World War period. One of Heller’s twisting propositions is that since the concept of right-or-wrong and the glory of war are essentially the projections of the bureaucratic polity, one should delve into the bureaucrats’ perception of the war in order to trace their idiotic manipulation of the ideology of war. Heller’s success lies in his ability to take his readers to an excursion to the bureaucrats’ decision-making zone that often is forbidden to the mass commoners. From the laughter-invoking bureaucratic whims, he gradually takes his readers to a more serious exploration of the destructive effects of these warring whims on the s oldiers as well as the mass commoners’ life. Focusing on the experiences of a bombardier, Yossarian, at the Air of Pianosa in Italy Heller goes on exhuming the offstage perversion, folly and idiocy of bureaucratic systems in modern society. Putting the right vs. wrong rhetoric of the stories on the Second World War aside, Heller questions whether the bureaucrats’ purpose behind the curtain of patriotism and honor are healthy for modern society. He attacks on the composition of the provision of Catch-22 that is manipulated by different military and government official differently. These different interpretations of the doctrine of Catch-22 by different persons are inspired by their own ends. Therefore, the Catch-22 doctrine serves the military officials as a blank check to do whatever they want to. The military officials use it to achieve their own ends, whereas it is manipulated by them as a means to suppress their subordinates. By putting the self-contradictory and ci rcular logic of Catch-22 in application, Heller has tried to lay the problems and duality of the bureaucratic reasoning and operation. The narrator of the novel describes Catch-22 in the following manner: â€Å"There was only one catch and that was Catch-22, which specified that a concern for one's safety in the face of dangers that were real and immediate was the process of a rational mind.† (Heller 78). But in the lines that immediately follow this definition, the narrator upholds the peculiarity and circularity of the provision, as he says, Orr was crazy and could be grounded. All he had to do was ask; and as soon as he did, he would no longer be crazy and would have to fly more missions. Orr would be crazy to fly more missions and sane if he didn't, but if he were sane he had to fly them. If he flew them he was crazy and didn't have to; but if he didn't want to he was sane and had to. (Heller 176) Yossarian become delighted to find that this clause can keep his friend Orr away from going to further missions. But Heller’s readers cannot but note the fact that this clause provides the military bureaucrats with enormous power to do anything without being accountable to anyone, as at some point, a military police says, â€Å"Catch-22 states that agents enforcing Catch-22 need not prove that Catch-22 actually contains whatever provision the accused violator is accused of violating.†

Debussy and Impressionism Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Debussy and Impressionism - Research Paper Example The paper "Debussy and Impressionism" explores Debussy's art and his influence of impressionism movement. Yet in a letter to his friend Arthur Hartmann he writes, â€Å"I became lost in my impressions, dazed in my emotions†. In denying the influence of impressionism on his work Debussy may have been reacting to early negative critical reviews of the impressionist movement in general. Today, perhaps, he might have been pleased to be included. Using two works, Monet’s Impression, Sunrise and Debussy’s Printemps, this essay explores the relationship between the two and offers evidence to support the notion that Debussy, despite protestations to the contrary, was indeed an impressionist. The Impressionism period covers approximately two decades from the late 1860s through the 1880s. The movement, originating in France in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, developed in response to the French Academy of Fine Arts and its narrow, overbearing and restrictive rul es as to what did or did not constitute art. A group of painters who became known as the Impressionists [not a compliment in those days] felt strongly about securing independence from these restrictive standards and the dictates of its annual official art exhibition, The Salon. The term impressionist was first used by French art critic Louis Leroy in 1874 in response to Monet's painting Impression, that will play an intrinsic role in the comparisons between Debussy as an impressionist and the artistic impressionists of the time.

Explore and critically assess the EU's understanding of, commitment to Essay

Explore and critically assess the EU's understanding of, commitment to and strategy for sustainable development - Essay Example It has held several other meetings with the main agenda of enforcing and further expounding the definition of sustainable as per the arising issues. EU has enshrined sustainable development in the article 2 of its Treaty. In 2000, the Lisbon European Council meeting fused sustainable development in it socio-economic reform agenda. Later in 2002, the Gothenburg Summit adopted the Strategy for Sustainable Development. But the implementation of the strategy has not been as smooth as initially thought. This is reflected in the 2005 progress assessment which showed that there had been worsening trends since 2001. It was found that there had been little or no change and in some cases negative trend in the areas of climate change, public health, poverty levels, social lives, degradation of natural resources and threatened biodiversity. In the same year the head of states went further to adopt guiding principle on which sustainable development agenda will be based on. These guiding principles are what can be used as a base to understand the EU understanding of sustainable development. According to Jordan (2005), EU gives the understanding that there are various areas in human life that needs to be integrated in the development agenda if the world has t... In line with this it launched the European Climate Change Program in 2000. In 2005 it went further and started the EU's green house gas Emission Trading Scheme and a second climate change program. Its commitment to the issue of climate and development has not slowed and in 2007 it made commitment to reduce emission by 20% by 2020. EU worked tirelessly in campaigning for other countries to honor the Kyoto Protocol after United States withdrawal in 2001. Although it has faced problems in implementing the Kyoto Protocol commitment, it has made progress and efforts are needed to reach the emission cut of 8% by 2012. Although seen as a concern to the environment, this strategy may end up hurting the economy of the whole region. EU has been crictsized for going it alone in the fight against climate change regardless of the effects it will have on the economy. There has also been criticism from other bodies that the policies on environment currently pursued by EU are not enough and there is need to do more to save the situation. According to Skeldon (1997), the go it alone approach used by EU may not have the desired effects on climate change and there is need for world efforts to tackle the problem. The other problem that EU addresses in its sustainable development is the issue concerning public health. This has been a very important issue for all countries in the world and each one strives to make the health of its citizens better. EU has developed a health forum through which information is channeled to the public on the need for community health awareness. Through the forum, health professional can make their contributions in

Effects of Divorce on Children Essay Example for Free

Effects of Divorce on Children Essay Although divorce is now allowed by law in some countries, it is still unhealthy for a family especially in the presence of a child. Due to the fact that they are still young, the children often do not understand why some couples need to separate and they respond in a variety of ways that parents should understand and deal with. When the divorce is settled, the children might wonder why their father or their mother is no longer around and this might be quite hard to explain to a young mind. This produces short and long term effects on the children and even sometimes causes teenagers to rebel against their parents causing more problems than there already is. Another issue regarding children and divorce is who will have custody of the children and alimony. Usually, the mother gets custody over the children while the father still provides financial support. Depending on the situation, the custody is being granted to the father. One problem about divorce is that couples think that the matter is only between them; failing to consider what effects it would have on their children. Little do they know that the changes that will occur once the divorce takes effect will have many negative effects on children. In a case to case basis, children might feel different because of the many changes that will take place once the divorce becomes effective such as changes in schedules and daily routines as well loss of contact with members of extended family (Parker). Children may also develop a fear that losing one parent will eventually lead to the lost of the other. The loss of attachment of a child to a parent may also lead to the loss of other secure relationships such as friends, siblings, neighbors and even pets. Children also, more often than not, are attached to their surroundings and divorce sometimes mean moving out or migrating which could prove unhealthy for the wellbeing of a child. A parent also has a tendency to create a dis-attachment between the child and the other parent which could prove to be a major predicament in the psychological health of the child (Parker). Many children tend to think that they are somehow the reason why their parents want to get divorced. Children often remember rough times that they had with their parents such as arguments, poor grades, getting into trouble, vices, etc. They start to think that the conflict came from them and they start to blame themselves. If this is the case, the parents should make clear that they are not responsible for the conflict and that both of the parents still love them. Explaining custody arrangements would also prove better to prepare the child and for a better understanding (Clandos). In some cases children try to bring their parents back together by either â€Å"acting out† in negative ways or trying â€Å"so good† so that his/her parents would think twice and reconsider about pursuing the divorce (Parker). As a reaction to a divorce, children especially teenagers show aggressive and defiant behavior. A problem here is that parents usually think that this is the normal behavior of the children instead of a reaction to problem. Parents should be keen observers and must be able to identify if the behavior is still normal. In such cases, children also show depression and parents must watch out for this kind of reactions (Parker). In one study, it has been proven that children have adapted to their parents divorce and have emerged as successful individuals. According to Constance Ahrons, the author of Were Still Family: What Grown Children Have to Say About Their Parents Divorce, although they are now adults, children who belonged in families that divorced emerged â€Å"stronger and wiser† having coped with â€Å"difficult times and experienced stressful family changes†. The research indicated that 79 percent feel that their parents decision to have divorce proved to be a good one. On the other hand, according to David Blankenhorn, founder of the Institute for American Values, â€Å"a good divorce is not nearly as important as having less divorce. No matter how good your divorce is, it is still a very painful experience for your child (Peterson). Many children who have grown up may have coped with the effects of divorce but still, a good number of children were affected and were not able to cope with it. It has been proven that children from divorced families are usually victims of abuse and exhibit more health, behavioral and emotional problems compared to children from intact families. Data also indicate that children from divorced families have more likely been associated with drugs, crime and even suicide (Fagan). According to a survey conducted by the Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics, fatherless children show a much greater risk of committing suicide while another study indicated that three out of four teenage suicide cases are from families where a parent is absent. Moreover, another study by Kalter and Rembar indicated from a sample of 144 children and adolescents that 63 percent showed subjective psychological problems such as anxiety, sadness, moodiness, phobias and depression while 56 percent had poor grades. Another 43 percent showed aggressive behavior towards their parents (Fatherless Homes Statistics). Children from divorced couples have been noted to perform poorly in academic subjects such as reading, spelling and math. They have also been identified to have higher drop-out rates and more often repeat a grade. It was also indicated that these children have a less likelihood of graduating from college. It was also noted that families that have gone through a divorce have experienced a 50 percent drop in their income levels resulting in poverty. Divorce also resulted in less religious worship which is associated with many positive outcomes such as better health, longer marriages and improved family life (Fagan). Divorce also affects the sexual behavior of children. Children from divorced families start to accept premarital sex and divorce. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth indicated that â€Å"African–American girls are 42 percent less likely to have sexual intercourse before age 18 if their biological father is present at home. For Hispanic–American girls, the stepfather’s presence increases the likelihood of sexual intercourse before age 18 by 72 percent† (Fagan). Robert Sampson, a professor of sociology at the University of Chicago, discovered that divorce rate is connected to the robbery rate in 171 cities in the United States that have a population of at least 100,000. Lower rate of divorce meant higher social control which in turn also results in lower crime rate. There is also a close line relating child abuse and crime rates. Higher divorce rates result in higher rates of child abuse but instead of curbing child abuse, remarriage only adds to it. Having a stepfather would most likely increase child abuse and data indicate that serious cases of abuse is much higher for stepchildren compared to children from whole families (Fagan). Likewise, a study by Kalter indicates that teenage and adult females that have been exposed to parental divorce resulted in lower self-esteem, heightened sexual activity, delinquent behavior and are unable to maintain a lasting heterosexual relationship. It was also stated that girls who grew without interaction from a father missed out on a key element. â€Å"The continuous sense of being valued and loved as a female seems an especially key element in the development of the conviction that one is indeed femininely lovable. Without this regular source of nourishment, a girls sense of being valued as a female does not seem to thrive† (Fatherless Homes Statistics). Children may suffer traumatic experiences in cases of divorce but steps can be taken to reduce these kinds of effects that divorce has on children. These steps are the following: â€Å"(1) be honest for the potential of emotional trauma on each of your kids; (2) allow your children to communicate openly; (3) offer your children choices, whenever possible, to increase their sense of power over their lives; (4) find support for yourself and your children; and (5) provide continuity† (Clandos). It is, likewise advised not to expose the children to any marital conflict. Talking about the spouses negative behavior should also be avoided while developing amicable relationship with the spouse is advisable for the sake of the children. Taking care of ones self will also help children adjust to the changes caused by the divorce. Moreover, discussing the separation with the children would also be helpful but one must always be mindful because what one says might affect the outlook of the child in a negative way (Clandos). Some changes in behavior may be observed from children that have been affected by the separation. Some children who are most of the time jolly and playful may become moody and may lose self-esteem. Sadness and moodiness may become excessive at times. Children also sometimes develop a fear of â€Å"clinginess† and may show anger outbursts (Clandos). Teen marriage account for a good percentage of divorce cases. Early marriages have been considered more unstable because of different factors such as the inability to support a family because of the absence of a good paying job having not finished college. It is estimated that one half of teen marriages with women ranging from 18 to 19 years of age result in divorce within 15 years time although the rate of divorce for women over 20 is also particularly high at around 33 percent. In cases of out-of -wedlock pregnancies, marrying before giving birth will increase paternal support because the male partner would have better access to the child and may provide better financial support even if there is a high risk that the marriage will result in an divorce (Seiler, 7). According to data from the National Center for Health Statistics, over time, the rate of divorce per 100 marriages have increased from three in 1870 to 30 in 1945 and 51 in 1998 (Fagan). Half of the marriages in the US end in divorce and from this data, one may state that people now no longer consider marriage as a strong binding force for a couple. Marriage now no longer provides a perception that it is permanent. Marriage is also no longer considered as a life-changing decision because of the availability of divorce. Dating games such as The Bachelor which sometimes end in marriage is proof enough that people no longer take marriage seriously. A divorce is caused by many factors such as common misunderstandings, financial difficulties, adultery, vices, and other irreconcilable differences. Many couples experience financial difficulties and this is one cause of divorce but prior to what most believe, financial problems are not the top cause of divorce. It only ranks fourth or fifth next to other factors that produce higher divorce rates, namely, â€Å"incompatibility, lack of emotional support, abuse and sexual problems†. According to Jan Andersen, associate professor at California State University in Sacramento, only 5 percent of divorce cases are caused by a couples financial difficulties (Weston). Other usual causes of divorce aside from financial problems are â€Å"lack of commitment to the marriage, lack of communication between spouses, infidelity, abandonment, alcohol addiction, substance abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, inability to manage or resolve conflict, personality differences or ‘irreconcilable differences’,differences in personal and career goals, different expectations about household tasks,different expectations about having or rearing children, interference from parents or in-laws, lack of maturity, intellectual incompatibility, sexual incompatibility, insistence of sticking to traditional roles and not allowing room for personal growth, falling out of love, religious conversion or religious beliefs, cultural and lifestyle differences, inability to deal with each other’s petty idiosyncrasies, mental instability or mental illness, criminal behavior and incarceration for crime† (Panse). Even if many countries legal ly accept divorce, there are still some countries that do not approve of divorce and most of these countries are against divorce because of religious beliefs. In biblical texts, adultery is often mentioned but nothing is clearly mentioned about divorce. Even theology scholars and pastors do not share the same views regarding biblical teachings about divorce. Christian scholars have different positions regarding the controversial issue. They argue that â€Å"(1) divorce is never permitted under any circumstances; (2) divorce is permissible under certain, specified circumstances; and (3) divorce is permissible under many circumstances† (House). The first argument supports that â€Å"marriage is lifelong and permanent† and divorce is against Gods standards and Christians are strictly prohibited from having divorce. Those who support the second argument that divorce is permissible under specific circumstances believe that divorce is not prohibited by biblical texts. They believe that one spouse commiting adultery means that a divorce can be allowed. Desertion is also being considered as a valid reason for divorce in this argument. On the other hand, the third view argues that divorce is allowed not just for conditions of adultery and desertion but for many other conditions as well (House). Generally speaking, divorce has many adverse effects on children. It affects their behavior, emotional and psychological health. Although some research studies indicate that children have been able to overcome the behavioral, emotional and psychological effects caused by divorce and were able to break out as successful individuals, many children still suffer from the harmful effects of divorce. As discussed, children from divorced families have a higher tendency to commit suicide, are more likely to commit crime and premarital sex as well as having poorer performance in academics. To sum it up, divorce does not provide any good effects on children and because of the many negative effects, it would be better if couples do not resort to divorce so as not to disregard the well-being of their children. It would be better off if couples just settle their differences for the sake of the children. It is also recommended that the government take steps to at least be able to lessen the cases of divorce if not eliminate it. On the other hand, the church should re-orient people the importance of marriage and deciding who to marry as simple as it has become today. The Church must make the people know that marriage is a life-changing decision. The status of marriage, particularly in the United States which is one of the countries with the highest divorce rates, is not strong. Works Cited Parker, Wayne. The Effects of Divorce on Children and How to Cope. accessed April 2, 2008 from, http://fatherhood. about. com/cs/divorceddads/a/divorcekids. htm Clandos, Rosemary, Kemp, Gina M. A. , Jaffe, Jaelline Ph. D. , Segal, Jeanne Ph. D. 28 September 2007. Coping with Divorce: Helping Your Child Cope with Separation or Divorce. accessed April 2, 2008 from, http://www. helpguide. org/mental/children_divorce. htm Peterson, Karen. Is Divorce a Bad Thing? Does it often leave broken children in its wake? Apparently not. 2004 June. accessed April 2, 2008 from, http://www. dimaggio. org/Eye- Openers/is_divorce_a_bad_thing. htm

Six Stroke Ic Engine Essay Example for Free

Six Stroke Ic Engine Essay 1. INTRODUCTION A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber during the final stage of compression. Diesel engines have wide range of utilization for automobiles, locomotives marines and co-generation systems. However, large problem is still related to undesirable emission. The six-stroke engine is a type of internal combustion engine based on the four-stroke engine but with additional complexity to make it more efficient and reduce emissions. Two different types of six-stroke engine have been developed: In the first approach, the engine captures the heat lost from the four-stroke Otto cycle or Diesel cycle and uses it to power an additional power and exhaust stroke of the piston in the same cylinder. Designs use either steam or air as the working fluid for the additional power stroke. The pistons in this type of six-stroke engine go up and down three times for each injection of fuel. There are two power strokes: one with fuel, the other with steam or air. The currently notable designs in this class are the Crower Six-stroke engine invented by Bruce Crower of the U.S. ; the Bajulaz engine by the Bajulaz S.A. company of Switzerland; and the Velozeta Six-stroke engine built by the College of Engineering, at Trivandrum in India. The second approach to the six-stroke engine uses a second opposed piston in each cylinder that moves at half the cyclical rate of the main piston, thus giving six piston movements per cycle. Functionally, the second piston replaces the valve mechanism of a conventional engine but also increases the compression ratio. The currently notable designs in this class include two designs developed independently: the Beare Head engine, invented by Australian Malcolm Beare, and the German Charge pump, invented by Helmut Kottmann. To improve exhaust emissions from diesel engines, a new concept of Six Stroke Engine has been proposed. This engine has a second compression and combustion processes before exhaust process. [pic] Fig 1 Diesel engine sectional view Fig 2 Ideal Otto cycle [pic] Fig 3 Pressure- Volume diagrams for dual cycle As the fuel in one cycle was divided into two combustion processes and the EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) effect appeared in the second combustion process, the decreased maximum cylinder temperature reduced Nitrous Oxide (NO) concentration in the exhaust gas. It was further confirmed that soot formed in the first combustion process was oxidized in the second combustion process .Therefore, a six stroke diesel engine has significant possibilities to improve combustion process because of its more controllable factors relative to a conventional four-stroke engine. Since the cylinder temperature before the second combustion process is high because of an increased temperature in the first combustion process, ignition delay in the second combustion process should be shortened. In addition, typically less desirable low cetane number fuels might also be suitable for use in the second combustion process, because the long ignition delays of these fuels might be improved by increased cylinder temperatures from the first combustion process. Methanol was chosen as the fuel of the second combustion. The cetane number of methanol is low and it shows low ignitability. However, since methanol will form an oxidizing radical (OH) during combustion, it has the potential to reduce the soot produced in the first combustion process. [pic] Fig 4 Comparison of 4 stroke and 6 stroke cycle 2. BAJULAZ SIX STROKE ENGINE The majority of the actual internal combustion engines, operating on different cycles have one common feature, combustion occurring in the cylinder after each compression, resulting in gas expansion that acts directly on the piston (work) and limited to 180 degrees of crankshaft angle. According to its mechanical design, the six-stroke engine with external and internal combustion and double flow is similar to the actual internal reciprocating combustion engine. However, it differentiates itself entirely, due to its thermodynamic cycle and a modified cylinder head with two supplementary chambers: Combustion, does not occur within the cylinder within the cylinder but in the supplementary combustion chamber, does not act immediately on the piston, and it’s duration is independent from the 180 degrees of crankshaft rotation that occurs during the expansion of the combustion gases (work). The combustion chamber is totally enclosed within the air-heating chamber. By heat exchange through the glowing combustion chamber walls, air pressure in the heating chamber increases and generate power for an a supplementary work stroke. Several advantages result from this, one very important being the increase in thermal efficiency. IN the contemporary internal combustion engine, the necessary cooling of the combustion chamber walls generates important calorific losses. 2.1 Analysis: Six-stroke engine is mainly due to the radical hybridization of two- and four-stroke technology. The six-stroke engine is supplemented with two chambers, which allow parallel function and results a full eight-event cycle: two four-event-each cycles, an external combustion cycle and an internal combustion cycle. In the internal combustion there is direct contact between air and the working fluid, whereas there is no direct contact between air and the working fluid in the external combustion process. Those events that affect the motion of the crankshaft are called dynamic events and those, which do not effect are called static events. [pic] Fig 5 Prototype of Six stroke engine internal view 1. Intake valve, 2.Heating chamber valve, 3.Combustion chamber valve,4. Exhaust valve, 5.Cylinder, 6.Combustion chamber, 7. Air heating chamber, 8.Wall of combustion chamber, 9.Fuel injector and 10.Heater plug. 2.1.1 Analysis of events [pic] Fig 6 Event 1: Pure air intake in the cylinder (dynamic event) 1. Intake valve. 2. Heating chamber valve 3. Combustion chamber valve. 4. Exhaust valve 5. Cylinder 6. Combustion chamber. 7. Air heating chamber. 8. Wall of combustion chamber. 9. Fuel injector. 10. Heater plug. [pic] Fig 7 Event 2: Pure air compression in the heating chamber. Event 3: Keeping pure air pressure in closed chamber where a maximum heat exchange occurs with the combustion chambers walls, without direct action on the crankshaft (static event). [pic] Fig 8 Event 4: Expansion of the Super heat air in the cylinder work (dynamic Event). [pic] Fig 9 Event 5: Re-compressions of pure heated air in the combustion chamber (dynamic event). Events 6: fuel injection and combustion in closed combustion chamber, without direct action on the crankshaft (static event). [pic] Fig 10 Events 7: Combustion gases expanding in the cylinder, work (dynamic event). [pic] Fig 11 Events 8: Combustion gases exhaust (dynamic event). [pic] Fig 12 Six-stroke engine cycle diagram: 2.1.2 External combustion cycle: (divided in 4 events): No direct contact between the air and the heating source. e1. (Event 1) Pure air intake in the cylinder (dynamic event). e2. (Event 2) Compression of pure air in the heating chamber (dynamic event). e3. (Event 3) Keeping pure air pressure in closed chamber where a maximum heat exchange occurs with the combustion chambers walls, without direct action on the crankshaft (static event). e4. (Event 4) Expansion of the super heated air in the cylinder, work (dynamic event). 2.1.3 Internal combustion cycle: (divided in 4 events) Direct contact between the air and the heating source. I1. (Event 5) Re-compression of pure heated air in the combustion chamber (dynamic event) I2. (Event 6) Fuel injection and combustion in closed combustion chamber, without direct action on the crankshaft (static event). I3. (Event 7) Combustion gases expanding in the cylinder, work (dynamic event). I4. (Event 8) Combustion gases exhaust (dynamic event). 2.2 Constructional details: The sketches shows the cylinder head equipped with both chambers and four valves of which two are conventional (intake and exhaust). The two others are made of heavy-duty heat-resisting material. During the combustion and the air heating processes, the valves could open under the pressure within the chambers. To avoid this, a piston is installed on both valve shafts which compensate this pressure. Being a six-stroke cycle, the camshaft speed in one third of the crankshaft speed. The combustion chambers walls are glowing when the engine is running. Their small thickness allows heat exchange with the air-heating chamber, which is surrounding the combustion chamber. The air-heating chamber is isolated from the cylinder head to reduce thermal loss. Through heat transfer from the combustion chamber to the heating chamber, the work is distributed over two strokes, which results in less pressure on the piston and greater smoothness of operation. In addition, since the combustion chamber is isolated from the cylinder by its valves, the moving parts, especially the piston, are not subject to any excessive stress from the very high temperatures and pressures. They are also protected from explosive combustion or auto-ignition, which are observed on ignition of the air-fuel mixture in conventional gas or diesel engines. The combustion and air-heating chambers have different compression ratio. The compression ratio is high for the heating chamber, which operates on an external cycle and is supplied solely with pure air. On the other hand, the compression ratio is low for the combustion chamber because of effectively increased volume, which operates on internal combustion cycle. The combustion of all injected fuel is insured, first, by the supply of preheated pure air in the combustion chamber, then, by the glowing walls of the chamber, which acts as multiple spark plugs. In order to facilitate cold  starts, the combustion chamber is fitted with a heater plug (glow plug). In contrast to a diesel engine, which requires a heavy construction, this multi-fuel engine, which can also use diesel fuel, may be built in a much lighter fashion than that of a gas engine, especially in the case of all moving parts. Injection and combustion take place in the closed combustion chamber, therefore at a constant volume, over 360 degrees of crankshaft angle. This feature gives plenty of time for the fuel to burn ideally, and releases every potential calorie (first contribution to pollution reduction). The injection may be split up, with dual fuel using the SNDF system (Single Nozzle, Dual Fuel). The glowing walls of the combustion chamber will calcite the residues, which are deposited there during fuel combustion (second contribution to pollution reduction). As well as regulating the intake and exhaust strokes, the valves of the heating and the combustion chambers allow significantly additional adjustments for improving efficiency and reducing noise. 2.3 Factors Contributing To the Increased Thermal Efficiency, Reduced Fuel Consumption, and Pollutant Emission 1. The heat that is evacuated during the cooling of a conventional engine’s cylinder head is recovered in six-stroke engine by air-heating chamber surrounding the combustion chamber. 2. After intake, air is compressed in the heating chamber and heated through 720 degrees of crankshaft angle, 360 degrees of which in closed chamber (external combustion). 3. The transfer of heat from thin walls of the combustion chamber to the air heating chambers lowers the temperature, pressure of gases on expansion and exhaust (internal combustion). 4. Better combustion and expansion of gases that take place over 540 degrees of crankshaft rotation, 360 ° of which is in closed combustion chamber, and 180 ° for expansion. 5. Elimination of the exhaust gases crossing with fresh air on intake. In the six stroke-engines, intake takes place on the first stroke and exhaust on the fourth stroke. 6. Large reduction in cooling power. The water pump and fan outputs are reduced. Possibility to suppress the water cooler. 7. Less inertia due  to the lightness of the moving parts. 8. Better filling of the cylinders on the intake due to the lower temperature of the cylinder walls and the piston head. 9. The glowing combustion chamber allows the finest burning of any fuel and calcinate the residues. 10. Distribution of the work: two expansions (power strokes) over six strokes, or a third more than the in a four-stroke engine. Since the six-stroke engine has a third less intake and exhaust than a four stroke engine, the depression on the piston during intake and the back pressure during exhaust are reduced by a third. The gain in efficiency balances out the losses due to the passage of air through the combustion chamber and heating chamber valves, during compression of fresh and superheated air. Recovered in the six-stroke engine By the air-heating chamber surrounding the combustion. Friction losses, theoretically high er in the six-stroke engine, are balanced by a better distribution of pressure on the moving parts due to the work being spread over two strokes and the elimination of the direct combustion. 3. DUAL FUEL SIX STROKE ENGINE 3.1 Working The cycle of this engine consists of six strokes: 1. Intake stroke 2. First compression stroke 3. First combustion stroke 4. Second compression stroke 5. Second combustion stroke 6. Exhaust stroke [pic] Fig 13 Concept of a Six-stroke diesel engine 3.1.1 Intake or Suction stroke To start with the piston is at or very near to the T.D.C., the inlet valve is open and the exhaust valve is closed. A rotation is given to the crank by the energy from a flywheel or by a starter motor when the engine is  just being started. As the piston moves from top to bottom dead centre the rarefaction is formed inside the cylinder i.e. the pressure in the cylinder is reduced to a value below atmospheric pressure. The pressure difference causes the fresh air to rush in and fill the space vacated by the piston. The admission of air continues until the inlet valve closes at B.D.C. 3.1.2 First Compression stroke Both the valves are closed and the piston moves from bottom to top dead centre. The air is compressed up to compression ratio that depends upon type of engine. For diesel engines the compression ratio is 12-18 and pressure and temperature towards the end of compression are 35-40 kgf/cm2 and 600-700 0C 3.1.3 First combustion stroke This stroke includes combustion of first fuel (most probably diesel) and expansion of product of combustion. The combustion of the charge commences when the piston approaches T.D.C. Here the fuel in the form of fine spray is injected in the combustion space. The atomization of the fuel is accomplished by air supplied. The air entering the cylinder with fuel is so regulated that the pressure theoretically remains constant during burning process. In airless injection process, the fuel in finely atomized form is injected in combustion chamber. When fuel vapors raises to self ignition temperature, the combustion of accumulated oil commences and there is sudden rise in pressure at approximately constant volume. The combustion of fresh fuel injected into the cylinder continues and this ignition is due to high temperature developed in engine cylinder. However this latter combustion occurs at approximately constant pressure. Due to expansion of gases piston moves downwards. The reciprocating motion of piston is converted into rotary motion of crankshaft by connecting  rod and crank. During expansion the pressure drop is due to increase in volume of gases and absorption of heat by cylinder walls. 3.1.4 Second compression stroke Both the valves are closed and the piston moves from bottom to top dead centre. The combustion products from the first compression stroke are recompressed and utilized in the second combustion process before the exhaust stroke. In typical diesel engine combustion the combustion products still contains some oxygen. 3.1.5 Second combustion stroke This stroke includes combustion of second fuel having low cetane (Cetane number of fuel is defined as percent volume of cetane (C16H34) in a mixture of cetane and alpha-methyl-naphthalene that produces the same delay period or ignition lag as the fuel being tested under same operating conditions on same engine). The combustion of the charge commences when the piston approaches to TDC. The second fuel injected into recompressed burnt gas can be burnt in the second combustion process. In other words combustion process of the second fuel takes place in an internal full EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) of the first combustion. This second combustion process was the special feature of the proposed Six Stroke DI Diesel Engine. 3.1.6 Exhaust stroke The exhaust valve begins to open when the power stroke is about to complete. A pressure of 4-5 kgf/cm2 at this instant forces about 60% of burnt gases into the exhaust manifold at high speed. Much of the noise associated with automobile engine is due to high exhaust velocity. The remainder of burnt gases is cleared of the swept volume when the piston moves from TDC to BDC. During this stroke pressure inside the cylinder is slightly above the atmospheric value. Some of the burnt gases are however  left in the clearance space. The exhaust valve closes shortly after TDC. The inlet valve opens slightly before the end of exhaust stroke and cylinder is ready to receive the fresh air for new cycle. Since from the beginning of the intake stroke the piston has made six strokes through the cylinder (Three up And Three down). In the same period crank shaft has made three revolutions. Thus for six stroke cycle engine there are two power strokes for every three revolutions of crank shaft. 3.2 Performance analysis 3.2.1 Modification over four stroke diesel engine This six-stroke diesel engine was made from a conventional four-stroke diesel engine with some modification. A sub-shaft was added to the engine, in order to drive a camshaft and injection pumps. The rotation speed of the sub-shaft was reduced to 1/3 of the rotation of an output shaft. To obtain similar valve timings between a four-stroke and a six-stroke diesel engine, the cam profile of the six-stroke diesel engine was modified. In order to separate the fuels, to control each of the injection timings and to control each injection flow rate in the first and the second combustion processes, the six-stroke diesel engine was equipped with two injection pumps and two injection nozzles. The injection pumps were of the same type as is used in the four-stroke diesel engine. The nozzle is located near the center of a piston cavity, and has four injection holes. For the six-stroke diesel engine, one extra nozzle was added on the cylinder head. This extra nozzle was of the same design as that of the four-stroke engine. [pic] Fig 14 Volume –Angle diagram for six stroke engine Diesel fuel for the first combustion process was injected through this extra nozzle, and methanol for the second combustion process was injected through the center nozzle. Here, we denoted the injection timing of the four  stroke diesel engine as Xi. The injection timings of the first and second combustion strokes for the six-stroke diesel engine are shown as Xi I and Xi II, respectively. Crank angle X was measured from the intake BDC. In the six-stroke engine, crank angle of the first combustion TDC is 180 degrees. The second combustion TDC is 540 degrees. Specifications of the test engines are shown in Table 1. The conventional four-stroke diesel engine that was chosen as the basis for these experiments was a single cylinder, air cooled engine with 82 mm bore and 78 mm stroke. The six-stroke engine has the same engine specifications except for the valve timings. However, the volumetric efficiency of the six-stroke engine showed no significant difference from that of the four-stroke engine. Characteristics of the six-stroke diesel engine were compared with the conventional four-stroke diesel engine. In this paper, the engine speed (Ne) was fixed at 2,000 rpm. Cylinder and line pressure indicators were equipped on the cylinder head. NO concentration was measured by a chemiluminescence’s NO meter, and soot emission was measured by a Bosch smoke meter. The physical and combustion properties of diesel fuel and methanol are shown in Table. 2. Since combustion heats of diesel fuel and methanol are different, injection flow rates of the first and the second combustion processes are defined by the amount of combustion heat. Here, the supplied combustion heat for the first combustion process is denoted by QI. The second combustion stroke is denoted by QII. The ratio of QII to Qt (Qt = QI+QII) supplied combustion heat per cycle) is defined as the heat allocation ratio ÃŽ ±H: ÃŽ ±H = QII = QII QI +QII Qt Table 1. Specifications of the test engine: Four stoke Six stroke Diesel Engine Diesel Engine Engine type DI, Single cylinder, Air cooled, OHV Bore x Stroke [mm] 82 x 78 Displacement [cc] 412 Top Clearance [mm] 0.9 Cavity Volume [cc] 16 Compression ratio 21 Intake Valve Open100 BTDC70 BTDC Intake valve Close1400 BTDC1450 BTDC Exhaust Valve Open1350 ATDC1400 ATDC Exhaust Valve Close120 ATDC30 ATDC Valve Overlap 220 100 Rated power 5.9 kW /3000rpm Base Engine - Table 2. Physical and combustion properties of diesel fuel and methanol: | |Diesel Fuel |Methanol | |Combustion heat [MJ/kg] |42.7 |19.9 | |Cetane number |40-55 |3.0 | |Density [kg/m2] |840 |793 | |Theoretical air-fuel ratio |14.6 |6.5 | 3.3 Performance of six stroke diesel engine 3.3.1 Comparison with four stroke diesel engine A four-stroke engine has one intake stroke for every two engine rotations. For the six-stroke engine, however, the intake stroke took place once for every three engine rotations. In order to keep the combustion heat per unit time constant, the combustion heat supplied to one six-stroke cycle should be 3 or 2 times larger than that of the four-stroke engine. There are many ways to compare performance between the four-stroke and six-stroke engines. For this paper, the authors have chosen to compare  thermal efficiency or SFC at same output power. If the thermal efficiency was the same in both engines, the same output power would be produced by the fuels of equivalent heats of combustion. Therefore, in order to make valid comparison, fuels supplied per unit time were controlled at the same value for both engines and engine speeds were kept constant. In this section, fuel supplied for the engines was only a diesel fuel. Performance of the six-stroke engine was compared with that of the four-stroke engine under various injection timings. Detailed conditions for comparison of the four-stroke and six-stroke engines are listed in Table. 3. The heat allocation ratio of the six-stroke engine was set at ÃŽ ±H = 0.5. Injection flow rate of fuel was Qt4 = 0.50 KJ/cycle for the four-stroke engine and Qt6 = 0.68 KJ/cycle for the six stroke engine. For six stroke engine, it meant that the amount of 0.34KJ was supplied at each combustion process. At the viewpoint of combustion heat, 0.75 KJ/cycle of heat should be supplied for the six stroke engine to make the equivalence heat condition. However diesel fuel of 0.68 KJ/cycle was supplied here because of difficulties associated with methanol injection. Injection timing of the four-stroke engine was changed from 160 degrees (200BTDC) to 180 degrees (TDC). For six -stroke engine, the injection timing of the first combustion process was fixed to 165 degrees (15 °BTDC) or 174 degrees (6 °BTDC), and the second injection timing was changed from 520 degrees (2000 BTDC) to 540 degrees (TDC). [pic] Fig 15 Valve timing diagram four stroke engine Table 3. Detailed conditions of comparison between the four stroke and six stroke diesel engines and performance of engine | |Four Stroke |Six Stroke | |Engine Parameters |Diesel Engine |Diesel Engine | |Engine Speed Ne [rpm] |2007 |2016 | |Supplied combustion heat per cycle | | | |Qt [KJ/cycle] |0.50 |0.68 | |Supplied combustion heat per unit time Ht [KJ/s] | | | | |8.36 |7.62 | |Intake air flow per cycle | | | |Ma [mg/cycle] |358.7 |371.4 | |Injection quantity per cycle | | | |Mf [mg/cycle] |11.8 |16 | | | | | |Excess air ratio ÃŽ » |2.40 |1.83 | |Intake air flow per unit time | | | |Ma [g/cycle] |6.00 |4.16 | |Injection quantity per unit time | | | |Mf [g/sec] |0.197 |0.179 | |Brake torque Tb [N-m] |15.52 |15.28 | |Brake power Lb [KW] |3.26 |3.24 | |BSFC. b [ g / KW-h] |217.9 |520.3 | |IMEP Pi [Kgf / cm2] |5.94 |4.37 | |Indicated torque Ti [N-m] |19.10 |18.71 | |Indicated power Li [KW] |4.01 |3.75 | |ISFC bi [g / KW-h ] |177.2 |163.3 | Indicated torque of the six-stroke engine is almost same level with that of the four-stroke engine under various injection timings. NO concentration in exhaust gas of the six-stroke engine was lower than that of the four-stroke engine. NO emissions from both engines were reduced by the retard of injection timing. The effect of retard in the second injection timing of the six-stroke engine was similar to that of the retard in the four-stroke engine. For the six-stroke engine, from the comparison between Xi I = 165 degrees (15 °BTDC) and Xi I = 174 degrees (6 °BTDC), it seemed that the NO reduction effect appeared with the timing retard in the first combustion process. Soot emission in the exhaust gas of the four-stroke engine was low level and it was not affected by the timing retard of injection. However, the level of soot emission from the six-stroke engine was strongly affected by the timing of the second injection. When the injection timing was advanced from 528 degrees (12 ° BTDC), it was confirmed that the soot emission was lower than that of the four-stroke engine. From numerical analysis, it was considered that the soot formed in the first combustion process was oxidized in the second combustion process. On the contrary, when the injection timing was retarded from 528 degrees (12 ° BTDC), soot emission increased with the timing retard. Then, it was considered that the increased part of the soot was formed in the second combustion process because an available period for combustion was shortened with the retard of injection timing. Experimental conditions were Xi = Xi I = 170 degrees (100 BTDC) and XiII=530 degrees (100 BTDC). The heat allocation ratio of six stroke engine was ÃŽ ±H=0.5. The cylinder temperature and heat release rate were calculated from the cylinder pressure. The pattern of heat release rate in the first combustion stroke of the six-stroke engine was similar to that of the heat release rate of the four-stroke engine. It was the typical combustion pattern that contained a pre-mixed combustion and diffusion combustion. On the other hand, since an increase of cylinder temperature in the second combustion process was caused by the compression of the burned gas formed in the first combustion stroke, a pre-mixed combustion in the second combustion process was suppressed by a short ignition delay. The maximum cylinder temperature in the first combustion process was lower than that in the four-stroke engine. It was caused by smaller amount of fuel which was injected in the first combustion process. Considering these results, it was proved that NO concentration in the exhaust gas was reduced by the decrease of the maximum cylinder temperature in the first co mbustion process and EGR effect in the second combustion process. The performance of these two engines could be compared by Table. 3. Since BSFC of the six-stroke engine obtained by the brake power suffered, SFC is compared with ISFC for the Xi = 163 degree (170 BTDC), ISFC of the four-stroke engine was 177.2 g/KW-h. On the other hand, for the Xi I = 165 degrees (15 ° BTDC) and Xi II = 523 degrees (170 BTDC), I.S the six-stroke engine was 163.3 g/KW-h. i.e. ISFC of the six-stroke engine was slightly lower than that of the four-stroke engine. It was considered that this advantage in ISFC was caused by a small cut-off ratio of constant pressure combustion. Because, in the six-stroke engine proposed here, the fuel divided into two combustion processes resulted in a short combustion period of each combustion process. Furthermore, in the reduction of NO emission, the six-stroke engine was superior to the four-stroke engine. 3.3.2 Effect of heat allocation ratio Injection conditions were Xi I = 170 degrees (1000 BTDC) and Xi II = 530 degrees (100 BTDC). Both fuels in the first and second combustion processes were diesel fuel. Total fuel at the combustion heat basis was Qt = 0.68 KJ/cycle. It meant a high load in this engine because the total excess air ratio was 1.83 as previously shown in Table 3. The maximum value of the indicated torque appeared around ÃŽ ±H = 0.5 NO concentration in exhaust gas was reduced by an increase of heat allocation ratio. In other words, NO emission decreased with an increase of the fuel of the second combustion process. In the case of ÃŽ ±H = 0.5, there is a relatively long ignition delay in the first combustion process and pre-mixed combustion was the main combustion phenomena in it. NO of high concentration was formed in this pre-mixed combustion process. On the other hand, in the case of ÃŽ ±H = 1, diffusion combustion was the main combustion phenomena and NO emission was low. Soot emission in exhaust gas increased with an increase of heat allocation ratio. Since the injection flow rate in the second combustion process increased with an increase of the heat allocation ratio, the injection period increased with an increase of the heat allocation ratio. It caused the second combustion process to be long, and unburnt fuel that was the origin of soot remained after the second combustion process. The heat release rates on ÃŽ ±H = 0.15 and ÃŽ ±H = 0.85. For ÃŽ ±H =0.15, since injection flow rate in the first combustion process was high and injection period in it was long, the combustion period in the first combustion process became long as compared with case of ÃŽ ±H = 0.85. On the other hand, for ÃŽ ±H = 0.85, the combustion period in the second combustion process became long as compared with case of ÃŽ ±H=0.15. It was also observed that the long combustion periods in both the first and second combustion were caused by the long diffusion combustion. Further, diffusion combustion was the main combustion phenomena of the second combustion process. When the heat allocation ratio was 0.85, the ratio of heat release rates between the first and second combustion should be 15: 85, however the actual ratio obtained from the figure was 46: 54. This inconsistency was caused from the drift of the base lines of the heat release diagrams. For ÃŽ ±H = 0.15, the actual ratio of heat release rates was 73: 27 with the similar reason. The cylinder temperature for the ÃŽ ±H = 0.15 condition was higher than that of the ÃŽ ±H = 0.85 condition. This could be explained as follows. In the first combustion stroke, since the injection flow rate of ÃŽ ±H = 0.15 was higher than that of ÃŽ ±H = 0.85, the combustion temperature for the ÃŽ ±H = 0.15 condition was higher than that of ÃŽ ±H = 0.85. In the second compression stroke, since the high temperature burned gas was re-compressed, the temperature of ÃŽ ±H = 0.15 was also higher than that of ÃŽ ±H = 0.85. As a result, the temperature at the beginning of the second combustion stroke was high in ÃŽ ±H = 0.15 condition as compared with ÃŽ ±H = 0.85 condition. At the later stage of the second combustion, however, the opposite relationship between these two temperatures were observed, because the injection flow rate of the second combustion process was low in ÃŽ ±H = 0.15 condition. The maximum temperatures in the first and second combustion process decreased with an increase of the heat allocation ratio. Then, it could be concluded that the reduction of NO concentration with the heat allocation ratio, was caused by the decrease of the cylinder temperature. 3.4 Performance of the dual fuel six stroke diesel engine 3.4.1 Comparison with diesel fuel six stroke engine Operating conditions of comparison between the diesel fuel and the dual fuel six-stroke engines are shown in Table. 4. Experimental conditions were Xi I= 170 degrees (100 BTDC), Xi II = 530 degrees (10o BTDC) and ÃŽ ±H = 0.5. In dual fuel six-stroke engine, diesel fuel and methanol were supplied into first and second combustion process, independently. Combustion heats supplied per one cycle of the diesel fuel and dual fuel six-stroke engines were same. The combustion heat supplied per one cycle was selected as Qt = 0.43 KJ/cycle under the middle load condition. Performance of the dual fuel six-stroke engine was compared with the diesel fuel six-stroke engine under various injection timings in the second combustion process. Indicated torques of both engines was revealed constant around 15 N-m. As a result, it could be concluded that states of combustion of the diesel fuel and the dual fuel six-stroke engines had similar contributions on the engine performance. NO emissions from the dual fuel six-stroke engine were lower than those of the diesel fuel six-stroke engine. This effect appeared prominently at the advanced injection timing of the second combustion. Further, NO concentrations of both engines were reduced by the injection timing retard in the second combustion. [pic] Fig 16 Torque- Angle diagram for six stroke engine Soot emission in the exhaust gas of the diesel fuel six stroke engines increased with a retard of the injection timing in the second combustion. For the dual fuel six-stroke engine, the exhaust level of soot was very low under various injection timings of the second combustion process. Soot was formed clearly by the combustion of diesel fuel in the first combustion process and it was oxidized in the second combustion process. Considering these results, it was possible to estimate that soot was almost oxidized by methanol combustion in the second combustion process. This estimation is supported by a dual fuel diesel engine operated with diesel fuel methanol. The combustion heat supplied per one cycle was selected as Qt = 0.68 KJ/cycle under the high load condition. Indicated torques of both engines was also revealed constant around 20 N-m. NO concentration had the same tendency as the cases of the middle load. Soot emission level of the diesel fuel six-stroke engine was high in this high load condition. For the dual fuel six-stroke engine, however, soot was very low under various injection timings of the second combustion process. The performance of these engines was compared in Table. 4. For the second combustion process, since combustion heats of diesel fuel and methanol were different, injection quantities of both engines were different. BSFC and ISFC of the dual fuel six-stroke engine was sensibly higher than that of the diesel fuel engine. To compare the performance of these engines, injection quantity of both engines was defined by an amount of combustion heat, and SFC should be calculated from it. As a result, indicated specific heat consumption of the diesel fuel six-stroke engine was 5.59 MJ/KW-h, and that of the dual fuel six-stroke engine was 5.43 MJ/KW-h. For the high load conditions shown in Table. 5, the similar advantage of the dual fuel six-stroke engine was observed. Table 4. Detailed conditions of comparison between the diesel fuel and dual fuel diesel engines and performance of engines under ÃŽ ±H = 0.5 and middle load | |Diesel Fuel Six Stroke Diesel |Dual Fuel Six Stroke | | |Engine |Diesel Engine | |Engine Speed Ne [rpm] |2016 |2003 | |Supplied combustion heat per cycle | | | |Qt [KJ/cycle] |0.43 | | |Injection quantity per cycle |5.0 | | |(First Combustion Stroke) |(Diesel Fuel) | | |Mf1 [mg/cycle] | | | |Injection quantity per cycle |5.0 |10.7 | |(Second Combustion Stroke) |(Diesel Fuel) |(Methanol) | |Mf2 [mg/cycle] | | | |Excess air ratio ÃŽ » |2.98 |3.15 | |Brake torque Tb [N-m] |3.14 |3.14 | |Brake power Lb [KW] |0.66 |0.66 | |B.S.F.C. b [ g / KW-h] | 610.9 |952.9 | |I.M.E.P. Pi [Kgf / cm2] |3.43 |3.53 | |Indicated torque Ti [N-m] |16.70 |15.12 | |Indicated power Li [KW] |3.1 |2.77 | |I.S.F.C. bi [g / KW-h ] |130.1 |198.4 | |Indicated specific heat consumption | | | |bi’ [MJ /KW-h] |5.59 |5.43 | In order to confirm the advantage of dual fuel six-stroke engine, the performance of these engines was compared with four-stroke engine as shown in Table. 6. NO concentrations of the diesel fuel and the dual fuel six-stroke engines were improved with 85 90% as compared with that of the four-stroke engine. Soot emission of the diesel fuel six-stroke engine was much higher than that of the four-stroke engine. However, for the dual fuel six-stroke engine, soot level was very low. Furthermore, the indicated specific heat consumption of the diesel fuel and dual fuel six-stroke engine were lower than that of the four-stroke engine. Especially, for the dual fuel six-stroke engine, the indicated specific heat consumption was improved with 15% as compared with that of the four stroke engine. From these results, it could be confirmed that the dual fuel six-stroke engine was superior to the diesel fuel six-stroke engine, and also it was superior to the four-stroke engine. Table 6. Percentage improvements of exhaust emission and specific heat consumption | |Four Stroke Diesel | Six Stroke Diesel Engine|Dual Fuel Six Stroke Engine | | |Engine | | | |NO [ppm] | |113 |90.5 | |( % improvement) |768 |(85.3%) |(88.2%) | |Soot [%] | |28.8 |0 | |(%improvement) |6.8 |(- 323.5%) |(100%) | |Indicated specific heat consumption bi’ | | | | |[MJ/KW-h] |7.51 |6.61 |6.37 | |(% improvement) | |(12.0%) |(15.2%) | Table 5. Detailed conditions of comparison between the diesel fuel and dual fuel diesel engine and performance of engines under ÃŽ ±H =0.5 and high load | | Six Stroke Diesel Engine |Dual Fuel Six Stroke Engine | |Engine Speed Ne [rpm] |2016 |2006 | |Supplied combustion heat per cycle | | | |Qt [kJ/cycle] |0.68 | | |Injection quantity per cycle |8.0 | | |(First Combustion Stroke) |(Diesel Fuel) | | |Mf1 [mg/cycle] | | | |Injection quantity per cycle |8.0 |17.2 | |(Second Combustion Stroke) |(Diesel Fuel) |(Methanol) | |Mf2 [mg/cycle] | | | |Excess air ratio ÃŽ » |1.86 |1.93 | |Brake torque Tb [N-m] |6.18 |6.08 | |Brake power Lb [kW] |1.52 |1.5 | |B.S.F.C. b [ g / kW.h] | 504.0 |777.7 | |I.M.E.P. Pi [kgf / cm2] |4.56 |4.75 | |Indicated torque Ti [N-m] |21.68 |20.38 | |Indicated power Li [kW] |3.45 |2.98 | |I.S.F.C. bi [g / kW.h ] |155.5 |236.2 | |Indicated specific heat consumption | | | |bi’ [MJ /kW.h] |6.61 |6.37 | 3.4.2 Effect of injection timing Performance of the dual fuel six-stroke engine under various injection timings in the second combustion process was investigated on middle and high load. Experimental conditions were Xi I = 170 degrees (100 BTDC) and ÃŽ ±H = 0.5. Performance of the dual fuel six-stroke engine under both load conditions had the similar tendency with the timing retard. NO concentrations in the high load condition were higher than those of the middle load condition. However, soot emission levels of both load conditions were extremely low under various injection timings of the second combustion. 3.4.3 Effect of heat allocation ratio Performance of the dual fuel six-stroke engine under various heat allocation ratios was investigated on middle and high load. Injection conditions were Xi I = 170 degrees (100 BTDC) and Xi II = 530 degrees (100 BTDC). Since the combustion heat of methanol was low, experimental range of heat allocation ratio was limited by the smooth operation of the engine. Only the range from ÃŽ ±H = 0.25 to 0.75 (on Qt = 0.43 KJ/cycle), and from ÃŽ ±H = 0 to 0.5 (on Qt = 0.68 KJ/cycle) could be tested.. Indicated torque increased with an increase of the heat allocation ratio. NO concentration in exhaust gas was reduced with an increase of the heat allocation ratio. Soot was very low, irrespective of the methanol flow rate. Even if the load condition was high, it was concluded that soot was practically eliminated by a small amount of methanol in the second combustion process (8% of total fuel). 4. ADVANTAGES OF SIX STROKE OVER FOUR STROKE ENGINES The six stroke is thermodynamically more efficient because the change in volume of the power stroke is greater than the intake stroke, the compression stroke and the Six stroke engine is fundamentally superior to the four stroke because the head is no longer parasitic but is a net contributor to – and an integral part of – the power generation within exhaust stroke. The compression ration can be increased because of the absent of hot spots and the rate of change in volume during the critical combustion period is less than in a Four stroke. The absence of valves within the combustion chamber allows considerable design freedom. 4.1 Main advantages of the duel fuel six-stroke engine: 4.1.1 Reduction in fuel consumption by at least 40%: An operating efficiency of approximately 50%, hence the large reduction in specific consumption. the Operating efficiency of current petrol engine is of the order of 30%. The specific power of the six-stroke engine will not be less than that of a four-stroke petrol engine, the increase in thermal efficiency compensating for the issue due to the two additional strokes. 4.1.2 Two expansions (work) in six strokes: Since the work cycles occur on two strokes (3600 out of 10800 ) or 8% more than in a four-stroke engine (1800 out of 720 ), the torque is much more even. This lead to very smooth operation at low speed without any significant effects on consumption and the emission of pollutants, the combustion not being affected by the engine speed. These advantages are very important in improving the performance of car in town traffic. 4.1.2 Dramatic reduction in pollution: Chemical, noise and thermal pollution are reduced, on the one hand, in proportion to the reduction in specific consumption, and on the other, through the engine’s own characteristics which will help to considerably lower HC, CO and NOx emissions. Furthermore, it’s ability to run with fuels of vegetable origin and weakly pollutant gases under optimum conditions, gives it qualities which will allow it to match up to the strictest standards. 4.1.3 Multifuel: Multifuel par excellence, it can use the most varied fuels, of any origin (fossil or vegetable), from diesel to L.P.G. or animal grease. The difference in inflammability or antiknock rating does not present any problem in combustion. It’s light, standard petrol engine construction, and the low compression ration of the combustion chamber; do not exclude the use of diesel fuel. Methanol-petrol mixture is also recommended. 5. CONCLUSIONS The performance of the dual fuel six-stroke engine was investigated. In this dual fuel engine, diesel fuel was supplied into the first combustion process and methanol was supplied into the second combustion process where  the burned gas in the first combustion process was re-compressed. The results are summarized as follows. 1. Indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC.) of the six-stroke engine proposed here is slightly lower than that of the four-stroke engine (about 9% improvement). NO and soot emissions from the six-stroke engine was improved as compared with four-stroke engine under advanced injection timings in the second combustion stroke. 2. For the dual fuel six-stroke engine, the timing retard and an increase of heat allocation ratio in the second combustion stroke resulted in a decrease of the maximum temperatures in the combustion processes. It caused the reduction of NO emission. 3. For the dual fuel six-stroke engine, soot was practically eliminated by a small amount of methanol in the second combustion process. 4. From the comparison of the performance between the dual fuel six-stroke and the four-stroke engine, it was concluded that indicated specific heat consumption of the dual fuel six-stroke engine was improved with 15% as compared with the four-stroke engine. NO concentration of the dual fuel six-stroke engine was improved with 90%. Furthermore, soot emission was very low in the dual fuel six-stroke engine. 5. As the fuel in one cycle was divided into two combustion processes and the EGR effect appeared in the second combustion process, the decreased maximum cylinder temperature reduced NO concentration in the exhaust gas It was further confirmed that soot formed in the first combustion process was oxidized in the second combustion process .Therefore, a six stroke DI diesel engine has significant possibilities to improve combustion process because of its more controllable factors relative to a conventional four-stroke engine. Considering these results, it was confirmed that the dual fuel six-stroke engine was superior to the four-stroke engine. 6. REFERENCES 1. Tsunaki Hayasaki, Yuichirou Okamoto, Kenji Amagai and Masataka Arai â€Å"A Six-stroke DI Diesel Engine under Dual Fuel Operation â€Å"SAE Paper No 1999-01-1500 2. S.Goto and K.Kontani, A Dual Fuel Injector for Diesel Engines, SAE paper, No. 851584, 1985 3. â€Å"Internal Combustion Engines â€Å"A book by Mathur Sharma. 4. â€Å"Internal Combustion Engines† Tata McGraw-hill publications, Author V Ganesan 7. NOMENCLATURE Ne : Engine speed X : Crank angle Xi : Injection timing of the four-stroke diesel engine ÃŽ ±H : Heat allocation ratio Q : Supplied combustion heat Qt : Supplied combustion heat per cycle P : Cylinder pressure V : Cylinder volume Vs : Stroke volume Pi : Indicated mean effective pressure (LM.E.P) Ti : Indicated torque Li : Indicated power Tb : Brake torque Lb : Brake power Ht : Supplied combustion heat per unit time Ma : Intake air flow per cycle Ma : Intake air flow per unit time Mf : Injection quantity per cycle Mi : Injection quantity per unit time ÃŽ » : Excess air ratio b : Brake specific fuel consumption (B.S.F.C.) bl : Indicated specific fuel consumption (I.S.F.C.) bi : Indicated specific heat consumption SUBSCRIPTS I: first combustion stroke II: second combustion stroke 4: four-stroke diesel engine 6: six-stroke diesel engine